Flavien Prost

Flavien Prost, Ben Packer, Jilin Chen et al.

There has been a flurry of research in recent years on notions of fairness in ranking and recommender systems, particularly on how to evaluate if a recommender allocates exposure equally across groups of relevant items (also known as provider fairness). While this research has laid an important foundation, it gave rise to different approaches depending on whether relevant items are compared per-user/per-query or aggregated across users. Despite both being established and intuitive, we discover that these two notions can lead to opposite conclusions, a form of Simpson's Paradox. We reconcile these notions and show that the tension is due to differences in distributions of users where items are relevant, and break down the important factors of the user's recommendations. Based on this new understanding, practitioners might be interested in either notions, but might face challenges with the per-user metric due to partial observability of the relevance and user satisfaction, typical in real-world recommenders. We describe a technique based on distribution matching to estimate it in such a scenario. We demonstrate on simulated and real-world recommender data the effectiveness and usefulness of such an approach.

James Atwood, Tina Tian, Ben Packer et al.

Despite the rich literature on machine learning fairness, relatively little attention has been paid to remediating complex systems, where the final prediction is the combination of multiple classifiers and where multiple groups are present. In this paper, we first show that natural baseline approaches for improving equal opportunity fairness scale linearly with the product of the number of remediated groups and the number of remediated prediction labels, rendering them impractical. We then introduce two simple techniques, called {\em task-overconditioning} and {\em group-interleaving}, to achieve a constant scaling in this multi-group multi-label setup. Our experimental results in academic and real-world environments demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposal at mitigation within this environment.

Gemini Team, Petko Georgiev, Ving Ian Lei et al. · deepmind, mila

In this report, we introduce the Gemini 1.5 family of models, representing the next generation of highly compute-efficient multimodal models capable of recalling and reasoning over fine-grained information from millions of tokens of context, including multiple long documents and hours of video and audio. The family includes two new models: (1) an updated Gemini 1.5 Pro, which exceeds the February version on the great majority of capabilities and benchmarks; (2) Gemini 1.5 Flash, a more lightweight variant designed for efficiency with minimal regression in quality. Gemini 1.5 models achieve near-perfect recall on long-context retrieval tasks across modalities, improve the state-of-the-art in long-document QA, long-video QA and long-context ASR, and match or surpass Gemini 1.0 Ultra's state-of-the-art performance across a broad set of benchmarks. Studying the limits of Gemini 1.5's long-context ability, we find continued improvement in next-token prediction and near-perfect retrieval (>99%) up to at least 10M tokens, a generational leap over existing models such as Claude 3.0 (200k) and GPT-4 Turbo (128k). Finally, we highlight real-world use cases, such as Gemini 1.5 collaborating with professionals on completing their tasks achieving 26 to 75% time savings across 10 different job categories, as well as surprising new capabilities of large language models at the frontier; when given a grammar manual for Kalamang, a language with fewer than 200 speakers worldwide, the model learns to translate English to Kalamang at a similar level to a person who learned from the same content.

Gheorghe Comanici, Eric Bieber, Mike Schaekermann et al. · amazon-science, baidu

In this report, we introduce the Gemini 2.X model family: Gemini 2.5 Pro and Gemini 2.5 Flash, as well as our earlier Gemini 2.0 Flash and Flash-Lite models. Gemini 2.5 Pro is our most capable model yet, achieving SoTA performance on frontier coding and reasoning benchmarks. In addition to its incredible coding and reasoning skills, Gemini 2.5 Pro is a thinking model that excels at multimodal understanding and it is now able to process up to 3 hours of video content. Its unique combination of long context, multimodal and reasoning capabilities can be combined to unlock new agentic workflows. Gemini 2.5 Flash provides excellent reasoning abilities at a fraction of the compute and latency requirements and Gemini 2.0 Flash and Flash-Lite provide high performance at low latency and cost. Taken together, the Gemini 2.X model generation spans the full Pareto frontier of model capability vs cost, allowing users to explore the boundaries of what is possible with complex agentic problem solving.

Ananth Balashankar, Ziteng Sun, Jonathan Berant et al. · deepmind

Language model alignment is a critical step in training modern generative language models. Alignment targets to improve win rate of a sample from the aligned model against the base model. Today, we are increasingly using inference-time algorithms (e.g., Best-of-N, controlled decoding, tree search) to decode from language models rather than standard sampling. We show that this train/test mismatch makes standard RLHF framework sub-optimal in view of such inference-time methods. To this end, we propose a framework for inference-aware alignment (InfAlign), which aims to optimize inference-time win rate of the aligned policy against the base model. We prove that for any inference-time decoding procedure, the optimal aligned policy is the solution to the standard RLHF problem with a transformation of the reward. This motivates us to provide the calibrate-and-transform RL (InfAlign-CTRL) algorithm to solve this problem, which involves a reward calibration step and a KL-regularized reward maximization step with a transformation of the calibrated reward. For best-of-N sampling and best-of-N jailbreaking, we propose specific transformations offering up to 3-8% improvement on inference-time win rates. Finally, we also show that our proposed reward calibration method is a strong baseline for optimizing standard win rate.

Alexandru Tifrea, Preethi Lahoti, Ben Packer et al.

Despite achieving promising fairness-error trade-offs, in-processing mitigation techniques for group fairness cannot be employed in numerous practical applications with limited computation resources or no access to the training pipeline of the prediction model. In these situations, post-processing is a viable alternative. However, current methods are tailored to specific problem settings and fairness definitions and hence, are not as broadly applicable as in-processing. In this work, we propose a framework that turns any regularized in-processing method into a post-processing approach. This procedure prescribes a way to obtain post-processing techniques for a much broader range of problem settings than the prior post-processing literature. We show theoretically and through extensive experiments that our framework preserves the good fairness-error trade-offs achieved with in-processing and can improve over the effectiveness of prior post-processing methods. Finally, we demonstrate several advantages of a modular mitigation strategy that disentangles the training of the prediction model from the fairness mitigation, including better performance on tasks with partial group labels.

James Atwood, Nino Scherrer, Preethi Lahoti et al.

Classifiers are used throughout industry to enforce policies, ranging from the detection of toxic content to age-appropriate content filtering. While these classifiers serve important functions, it is also essential that they are built in ways that minimize unfair biases for users. One such fairness consideration is called group fairness, which desires that different sub-population of users receive equal treatment. This is a well-studied problem in the context of 'classical' classifiers. However, the emergence of prompt-based language model (LM) decision making has created new opportunities to solve text-based classification tasks, and the fairness properties of these new classifiers are not yet well understood. Further, the `remediation toolkit' is incomplete for LM-based decision makers and little is understood about how to improve decision maker group fairness while maintaining classifier performance. This work sets out to add more tools to that toolbox. We introduce adaptations of existing effective approaches from the classical classifier fairness to the prompt-based classifier space. We also devise simple methods that take advantage of the new structure of prompt-based decision makers and operate at the prompt level. We compare these approaches empirically on real data. Our results suggest that adaptations of approaches that are effective for classical classifiers remain effective in the LM-based classifier environment. However, there is room for further exploration of prompt-based remediation methods (and other remediation methods that take advantage of LM structure).

Gemini Team, Rohan Anil, Sebastian Borgeaud et al.

This report introduces a new family of multimodal models, Gemini, that exhibit remarkable capabilities across image, audio, video, and text understanding. The Gemini family consists of Ultra, Pro, and Nano sizes, suitable for applications ranging from complex reasoning tasks to on-device memory-constrained use-cases. Evaluation on a broad range of benchmarks shows that our most-capable Gemini Ultra model advances the state of the art in 30 of 32 of these benchmarks - notably being the first model to achieve human-expert performance on the well-studied exam benchmark MMLU, and improving the state of the art in every one of the 20 multimodal benchmarks we examined. We believe that the new capabilities of the Gemini family in cross-modal reasoning and language understanding will enable a wide variety of use cases. We discuss our approach toward post-training and deploying Gemini models responsibly to users through services including Gemini, Gemini Advanced, Google AI Studio, and Cloud Vertex AI.

Yuyan Wang, Xuezhi Wang, Alex Beutel et al.

As multi-task models gain popularity in a wider range of machine learning applications, it is becoming increasingly important for practitioners to understand the fairness implications associated with those models. Most existing fairness literature focuses on learning a single task more fairly, while how ML fairness interacts with multiple tasks in the joint learning setting is largely under-explored. In this paper, we are concerned with how group fairness (e.g., equal opportunity, equalized odds) as an ML fairness concept plays out in the multi-task scenario. In multi-task learning, several tasks are learned jointly to exploit task correlations for a more efficient inductive transfer. This presents a multi-dimensional Pareto frontier on (1) the trade-off between group fairness and accuracy with respect to each task, as well as (2) the trade-offs across multiple tasks. We aim to provide a deeper understanding on how group fairness interacts with accuracy in multi-task learning, and we show that traditional approaches that mainly focus on optimizing the Pareto frontier of multi-task accuracy might not perform well on fairness goals. We propose a new set of metrics to better capture the multi-dimensional Pareto frontier of fairness-accuracy trade-offs uniquely presented in a multi-task learning setting. We further propose a Multi-Task-Aware Fairness (MTA-F) approach to improve fairness in multi-task learning. Experiments on several real-world datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed approach.

Flavien Prost, Pranjal Awasthi, Nick Blumm et al.

In this work we study the problem of measuring the fairness of a machine learning model under noisy information. Focusing on group fairness metrics, we investigate the particular but common situation when the evaluation requires controlling for the confounding effect of covariate variables. In a practical setting, we might not be able to jointly observe the covariate and group information, and a standard workaround is to then use proxies for one or more of these variables. Prior works have demonstrated the challenges with using a proxy for sensitive attributes, and strong independence assumptions are needed to provide guarantees on the accuracy of the noisy estimates. In contrast, in this work we study using a proxy for the covariate variable and present a theoretical analysis that aims to characterize weaker conditions under which accurate fairness evaluation is possible. Furthermore, our theory identifies potential sources of errors and decouples them into two interpretable parts $γ$ and $ε$. The first part $γ$ depends solely on the performance of the proxy such as precision and recall, whereas the second part $ε$ captures correlations between all the variables of interest. We show that in many scenarios the error in the estimates is dominated by $γ$ via a linear dependence, whereas the dependence on the correlations $ε$ only constitutes a lower order term. As a result we expand the understanding of scenarios where measuring model fairness via proxies can be an effective approach. Finally, we compare, via simulations, the theoretical upper-bounds to the distribution of simulated estimation errors and show that assuming some structure on the data, even weak, is key to significantly improve both theoretical guarantees and empirical results.

Sirui Yao, Yoni Halpern, Nithum Thain et al.

Imagine a food recommender system -- how would we check if it is \emph{causing} and fostering unhealthy eating habits or merely reflecting users' interests? How much of a user's experience over time with a recommender is caused by the recommender system's choices and biases, and how much is based on the user's preferences and biases? Popularity bias and filter bubbles are two of the most well-studied recommender system biases, but most of the prior research has focused on understanding the system behavior in a single recommendation step. How do these biases interplay with user behavior, and what types of user experiences are created from repeated interactions? In this work, we offer a simulation framework for measuring the impact of a recommender system under different types of user behavior. Using this simulation framework, we can (a) isolate the effect of the recommender system from the user preferences, and (b) examine how the system performs not just on average for an "average user" but also the extreme experiences under atypical user behavior. As part of the simulation framework, we propose a set of evaluation metrics over the simulations to understand the recommender system's behavior. Finally, we present two empirical case studies -- one on traditional collaborative filtering in MovieLens and one on a large-scale production recommender system -- to understand how popularity bias manifests over time.

Preethi Lahoti, Alex Beutel, Jilin Chen et al.

Much of the previous machine learning (ML) fairness literature assumes that protected features such as race and sex are present in the dataset, and relies upon them to mitigate fairness concerns. However, in practice factors like privacy and regulation often preclude the collection of protected features, or their use for training or inference, severely limiting the applicability of traditional fairness research. Therefore we ask: How can we train an ML model to improve fairness when we do not even know the protected group memberships? In this work we address this problem by proposing Adversarially Reweighted Learning (ARL). In particular, we hypothesize that non-protected features and task labels are valuable for identifying fairness issues, and can be used to co-train an adversarial reweighting approach for improving fairness. Our results show that {ARL} improves Rawlsian Max-Min fairness, with notable AUC improvements for worst-case protected groups in multiple datasets, outperforming state-of-the-art alternatives.

Xuezhi Wang, Nithum Thain, Anu Sinha et al.

How can we build recommender systems to take into account fairness? Real-world recommender systems are often composed of multiple models, built by multiple teams. However, most research on fairness focuses on improving fairness in a single model. Further, recent research on classification fairness has shown that combining multiple "fair" classifiers can still result in an "unfair" classification system. This presents a significant challenge: how do we understand and improve fairness in recommender systems composed of multiple components? In this paper, we study the compositionality of recommender fairness. We consider two recently proposed fairness ranking metrics: equality of exposure and pairwise ranking accuracy. While we show that fairness in recommendation is not guaranteed to compose, we provide theory for a set of conditions under which fairness of individual models does compose. We then present an analytical framework for both understanding whether a real system's signals can achieve compositional fairness, and improving which component would have the greatest impact on the fairness of the overall system. In addition to the theoretical results, we find on multiple datasets -- including a large-scale real-world recommender system -- that the overall system's end-to-end fairness is largely achievable by improving fairness in individual components.

Flavien Prost, Hai Qian, Qiuwen Chen et al.

As recent literature has demonstrated how classifiers often carry unintended biases toward some subgroups, deploying machine learned models to users demands careful consideration of the social consequences. How should we address this problem in a real-world system? How should we balance core performance and fairness metrics? In this paper, we introduce a MinDiff framework for regularizing classifiers toward different fairness metrics and analyze a technique with kernel-based statistical dependency tests. We run a thorough study on an academic dataset to compare the Pareto frontier achieved by different regularization approaches, and apply our kernel-based method to two large-scale industrial systems demonstrating real-world improvements.

Flavien Prost, Nithum Thain, Tolga Bolukbasi

(Bolukbasi et al., 2016) demonstrated that pretrained word embeddings can inherit gender bias from the data they were trained on. We investigate how this bias affects downstream classification tasks, using the case study of occupation classification (De-Arteaga et al.,2019). We show that traditional techniques for debiasing embeddings can actually worsen the bias of the downstream classifier by providing a less noisy channel for communicating gender information. With a relatively minor adjustment, however, we show how these same techniques can be used to simultaneously reduce bias and maintain high classification accuracy.