Ryan Julian

Anthony Brohan, Noah Brown, Justice Carbajal et al. · stanford

We study how vision-language models trained on Internet-scale data can be incorporated directly into end-to-end robotic control to boost generalization and enable emergent semantic reasoning. Our goal is to enable a single end-to-end trained model to both learn to map robot observations to actions and enjoy the benefits of large-scale pretraining on language and vision-language data from the web. To this end, we propose to co-fine-tune state-of-the-art vision-language models on both robotic trajectory data and Internet-scale vision-language tasks, such as visual question answering. In contrast to other approaches, we propose a simple, general recipe to achieve this goal: in order to fit both natural language responses and robotic actions into the same format, we express the actions as text tokens and incorporate them directly into the training set of the model in the same way as natural language tokens. We refer to such category of models as vision-language-action models (VLA) and instantiate an example of such a model, which we call RT-2. Our extensive evaluation (6k evaluation trials) shows that our approach leads to performant robotic policies and enables RT-2 to obtain a range of emergent capabilities from Internet-scale training. This includes significantly improved generalization to novel objects, the ability to interpret commands not present in the robot training data (such as placing an object onto a particular number or icon), and the ability to perform rudimentary reasoning in response to user commands (such as picking up the smallest or largest object, or the one closest to another object). We further show that incorporating chain of thought reasoning allows RT-2 to perform multi-stage semantic reasoning, for example figuring out which object to pick up for use as an improvised hammer (a rock), or which type of drink is best suited for someone who is tired (an energy drink).

Anthony Brohan, Noah Brown, Justice Carbajal et al.

By transferring knowledge from large, diverse, task-agnostic datasets, modern machine learning models can solve specific downstream tasks either zero-shot or with small task-specific datasets to a high level of performance. While this capability has been demonstrated in other fields such as computer vision, natural language processing or speech recognition, it remains to be shown in robotics, where the generalization capabilities of the models are particularly critical due to the difficulty of collecting real-world robotic data. We argue that one of the keys to the success of such general robotic models lies with open-ended task-agnostic training, combined with high-capacity architectures that can absorb all of the diverse, robotic data. In this paper, we present a model class, dubbed Robotics Transformer, that exhibits promising scalable model properties. We verify our conclusions in a study of different model classes and their ability to generalize as a function of the data size, model size, and data diversity based on a large-scale data collection on real robots performing real-world tasks. The project's website and videos can be found at robotics-transformer1.github.io

Michael Ahn, Anthony Brohan, Noah Brown et al.

Large language models can encode a wealth of semantic knowledge about the world. Such knowledge could be extremely useful to robots aiming to act upon high-level, temporally extended instructions expressed in natural language. However, a significant weakness of language models is that they lack real-world experience, which makes it difficult to leverage them for decision making within a given embodiment. For example, asking a language model to describe how to clean a spill might result in a reasonable narrative, but it may not be applicable to a particular agent, such as a robot, that needs to perform this task in a particular environment. We propose to provide real-world grounding by means of pretrained skills, which are used to constrain the model to propose natural language actions that are both feasible and contextually appropriate. The robot can act as the language model's "hands and eyes," while the language model supplies high-level semantic knowledge about the task. We show how low-level skills can be combined with large language models so that the language model provides high-level knowledge about the procedures for performing complex and temporally-extended instructions, while value functions associated with these skills provide the grounding necessary to connect this knowledge to a particular physical environment. We evaluate our method on a number of real-world robotic tasks, where we show the need for real-world grounding and that this approach is capable of completing long-horizon, abstract, natural language instructions on a mobile manipulator. The project's website and the video can be found at https://say-can.github.io/.

K. R. Zentner, Ryan Julian, Brian Ichter et al.

This paper combines two contributions. First, we introduce an extension of the Meta-World benchmark, which we call "Language-World," which allows a large language model to operate in a simulated robotic environment using semi-structured natural language queries and scripted skills described using natural language. By using the same set of tasks as Meta-World, Language-World results can be easily compared to Meta-World results, allowing for a point of comparison between recent methods using Large Language Models (LLMs) and those using Deep Reinforcement Learning. Second, we introduce a method we call Plan Conditioned Behavioral Cloning (PCBC), that allows finetuning the behavior of high-level plans using end-to-end demonstrations. Using Language-World, we show that PCBC is able to achieve strong performance in a variety of few-shot regimes, often achieving task generalization with as little as a single demonstration. We have made Language-World available as open-source software at https://github.com/krzentner/language-world/.

Seonghyeon Ye, Yunhao Ge, Kaiyuan Zheng et al.

State-of-the-art Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models excel at semantic generalization but struggle to generalize to unseen physical motions in novel environments. We introduce DreamZero, a World Action Model (WAM) built upon a pretrained video diffusion backbone. Unlike VLAs, WAMs learn physical dynamics by predicting future world states and actions, using video as a dense representation of how the world evolves. By jointly modeling video and action, DreamZero learns diverse skills effectively from heterogeneous robot data without relying on repetitive demonstrations. This results in over 2x improvement in generalization to new tasks and environments compared to state-of-the-art VLAs in real robot experiments. Crucially, through model and system optimizations, we enable a 14B autoregressive video diffusion model to perform real-time closed-loop control at 7Hz. Finally, we demonstrate two forms of cross-embodiment transfer: video-only demonstrations from other robots or humans yield a relative improvement of over 42% on unseen task performance with just 10-20 minutes of data. More surprisingly, DreamZero enables few-shot embodiment adaptation, transferring to a new embodiment with only 30 minutes of play data while retaining zero-shot generalization.

Gheorghe Comanici, Eric Bieber, Mike Schaekermann et al. · amazon-science, baidu

In this report, we introduce the Gemini 2.X model family: Gemini 2.5 Pro and Gemini 2.5 Flash, as well as our earlier Gemini 2.0 Flash and Flash-Lite models. Gemini 2.5 Pro is our most capable model yet, achieving SoTA performance on frontier coding and reasoning benchmarks. In addition to its incredible coding and reasoning skills, Gemini 2.5 Pro is a thinking model that excels at multimodal understanding and it is now able to process up to 3 hours of video content. Its unique combination of long context, multimodal and reasoning capabilities can be combined to unlock new agentic workflows. Gemini 2.5 Flash provides excellent reasoning abilities at a fraction of the compute and latency requirements and Gemini 2.0 Flash and Flash-Lite provide high performance at low latency and cost. Taken together, the Gemini 2.X model generation spans the full Pareto frontier of model capability vs cost, allowing users to explore the boundaries of what is possible with complex agentic problem solving.

Tianhe Yu, Deirdre Quillen, Zhanpeng He et al.

Meta-reinforcement learning algorithms can enable robots to acquire new skills much more quickly, by leveraging prior experience to learn how to learn. However, much of the current research on meta-reinforcement learning focuses on task distributions that are very narrow. For example, a commonly used meta-reinforcement learning benchmark uses different running velocities for a simulated robot as different tasks. When policies are meta-trained on such narrow task distributions, they cannot possibly generalize to more quickly acquire entirely new tasks. Therefore, if the aim of these methods is to enable faster acquisition of entirely new behaviors, we must evaluate them on task distributions that are sufficiently broad to enable generalization to new behaviors. In this paper, we propose an open-source simulated benchmark for meta-reinforcement learning and multi-task learning consisting of 50 distinct robotic manipulation tasks. Our aim is to make it possible to develop algorithms that generalize to accelerate the acquisition of entirely new, held-out tasks. We evaluate 7 state-of-the-art meta-reinforcement learning and multi-task learning algorithms on these tasks. Surprisingly, while each task and its variations (e.g., with different object positions) can be learned with reasonable success, these algorithms struggle to learn with multiple tasks at the same time, even with as few as ten distinct training tasks. Our analysis and open-source environments pave the way for future research in multi-task learning and meta-learning that can enable meaningful generalization, thereby unlocking the full potential of these methods.

Michael Ahn, Debidatta Dwibedi, Chelsea Finn et al.

Foundation models that incorporate language, vision, and more recently actions have revolutionized the ability to harness internet scale data to reason about useful tasks. However, one of the key challenges of training embodied foundation models is the lack of data grounded in the physical world. In this paper, we propose AutoRT, a system that leverages existing foundation models to scale up the deployment of operational robots in completely unseen scenarios with minimal human supervision. AutoRT leverages vision-language models (VLMs) for scene understanding and grounding, and further uses large language models (LLMs) for proposing diverse and novel instructions to be performed by a fleet of robots. Guiding data collection by tapping into the knowledge of foundation models enables AutoRT to effectively reason about autonomy tradeoffs and safety while significantly scaling up data collection for robot learning. We demonstrate AutoRT proposing instructions to over 20 robots across multiple buildings and collecting 77k real robot episodes via both teleoperation and autonomous robot policies. We experimentally show that such "in-the-wild" data collected by AutoRT is significantly more diverse, and that AutoRT's use of LLMs allows for instruction following data collection robots that can align to human preferences.

K. R. Zentner, Ryan Julian, Ujjwal Puri et al.

In order to be effective general purpose machines in real world environments, robots not only will need to adapt their existing manipulation skills to new circumstances, they will need to acquire entirely new skills on-the-fly. A great promise of continual learning is to endow robots with this ability, by using their accumulated knowledge and experience from prior skills. We take a fresh look at this problem, by considering a setting in which the robot is limited to storing that knowledge and experience only in the form of learned skill policies. We show that storing skill policies, careful pre-training, and appropriately choosing when to transfer those skill policies is sufficient to build a continual learner in the context of robotic manipulation. We analyze which conditions are needed to transfer skills in the challenging Meta-World simulation benchmark. Using this analysis, we introduce a pair-wise metric relating skills that allows us to predict the effectiveness of skill transfer between tasks, and use it to reduce the problem of continual learning to curriculum selection. Given an appropriate curriculum, we show how to continually acquire robotic manipulation skills without forgetting, and using far fewer samples than needed to train them from scratch.

K. R. Zentner, Ryan Julian, Ujjwal Puri et al.

We explore possible methods for multi-task transfer learning which seek to exploit the shared physical structure of robotics tasks. Specifically, we train policies for a base set of pre-training tasks, then experiment with adapting to new off-distribution tasks, using simple architectural approaches for re-using these policies as black-box priors. These approaches include learning an alignment of either the observation space or action space from a base to a target task to exploit rigid body structure, and methods for learning a time-domain switching policy across base tasks which solves the target task, to exploit temporal coherence. We find that combining low-complexity target policy classes, base policies as black-box priors, and simple optimization algorithms allows us to acquire new tasks outside the base task distribution, using small amounts of offline training data.

Yevgen Chebotar, Karol Hausman, Yao Lu et al.

We consider the problem of learning useful robotic skills from previously collected offline data without access to manually specified rewards or additional online exploration, a setting that is becoming increasingly important for scaling robot learning by reusing past robotic data. In particular, we propose the objective of learning a functional understanding of the environment by learning to reach any goal state in a given dataset. We employ goal-conditioned Q-learning with hindsight relabeling and develop several techniques that enable training in a particularly challenging offline setting. We find that our method can operate on high-dimensional camera images and learn a variety of skills on real robots that generalize to previously unseen scenes and objects. We also show that our method can learn to reach long-horizon goals across multiple episodes through goal chaining, and learn rich representations that can help with downstream tasks through pre-training or auxiliary objectives. The videos of our experiments can be found at https://actionable-models.github.io

Ryan Julian, Benjamin Swanson, Gaurav S. Sukhatme et al.

One of the great promises of robot learning systems is that they will be able to learn from their mistakes and continuously adapt to ever-changing environments. Despite this potential, most of the robot learning systems today are deployed as a fixed policy and they are not being adapted after their deployment. Can we efficiently adapt previously learned behaviors to new environments, objects and percepts in the real world? In this paper, we present a method and empirical evidence towards a robot learning framework that facilitates continuous adaption. In particular, we demonstrate how to adapt vision-based robotic manipulation policies to new variations by fine-tuning via off-policy reinforcement learning, including changes in background, object shape and appearance, lighting conditions, and robot morphology. Further, this adaptation uses less than 0.2% of the data necessary to learn the task from scratch. We find that our approach of adapting pre-trained policies leads to substantial performance gains over the course of fine-tuning, and that pre-training via RL is essential: training from scratch or adapting from supervised ImageNet features are both unsuccessful with such small amounts of data. We also find that these positive results hold in a limited continual learning setting, in which we repeatedly fine-tune a single lineage of policies using data from a succession of new tasks. Our empirical conclusions are consistently supported by experiments on simulated manipulation tasks, and by 52 unique fine-tuning experiments on a real robotic grasping system pre-trained on 580,000 grasps.

Zhanpeng He, Ryan Julian, Eric Heiden et al.

Simulation-to-real transfer is an important strategy for making reinforcement learning practical with real robots. Successful sim-to-real transfer systems have difficulty producing policies which generalize across tasks, despite training for thousands of hours equivalent real robot time. To address this shortcoming, we present a novel approach to efficiently learning new robotic skills directly on a real robot, based on model-predictive control (MPC) and an algorithm for learning task representations. In short, we show how to reuse the simulation from the pre-training step of sim-to-real methods as a tool for foresight, allowing the sim-to-real policy adapt to unseen tasks. Rather than end-to-end learning policies for single tasks and attempting to transfer them, we first use simulation to simultaneously learn (1) a continuous parameterization (i.e. a skill embedding or latent) of task-appropriate primitive skills, and (2) a single policy for these skills which is conditioned on this representation. We then directly transfer our multi-skill policy to a real robot, and actuate the robot by choosing sequences of skill latents which actuate the policy, with each latent corresponding to a pre-learned primitive skill controller. We complete unseen tasks by choosing new sequences of skill latents to control the robot using MPC, where our MPC model is composed of the pre-trained skill policy executed in the simulation environment, run in parallel with the real robot. We discuss the background and principles of our method, detail its practical implementation, and evaluate its performance by using our method to train a real Sawyer Robot to achieve motion tasks such as drawing and block pushing.

Ryan Julian, Eric Heiden, Zhanpeng He et al.

We present a novel solution to the problem of simulation-to-real transfer, which builds on recent advances in robot skill decomposition. Rather than focusing on minimizing the simulation-reality gap, we learn a set of diverse policies that are parameterized in a way that makes them easily reusable. This diversity and parameterization of low-level skills allows us to find a transferable policy that is able to use combinations and variations of different skills to solve more complex, high-level tasks. In particular, we first use simulation to jointly learn a policy for a set of low-level skills, and a "skill embedding" parameterization which can be used to compose them. Later, we learn high-level policies which actuate the low-level policies via this skill embedding parameterization. The high-level policies encode how and when to reuse the low-level skills together to achieve specific high-level tasks. Importantly, our method learns to control a real robot in joint-space to achieve these high-level tasks with little or no on-robot time, despite the fact that the low-level policies may not be perfectly transferable from simulation to real, and that the low-level skills were not trained on any examples of high-level tasks. We illustrate the principles of our method using informative simulation experiments. We then verify its usefulness for real robotics problems by learning, transferring, and composing free-space and contact motion skills on a Sawyer robot using only joint-space control. We experiment with several techniques for composing pre-learned skills, and find that our method allows us to use both learning-based approaches and efficient search-based planning to achieve high-level tasks using only pre-learned skills.