Dominic Kao

Syed T. Mubarrat, Byung-Cheol Min, Tianyu Shao et al.

Robotics education fosters computational thinking, creativity, and problem-solving, but remains challenging due to technical complexity. Game-based learning (GBL) and gamification offer engagement benefits, yet their comparative impact remains unclear. We present the first PRISMA-aligned systematic review and comparative synthesis of GBL and gamification in robotics education, analyzing 95 studies from 12,485 records across four databases (2014-2025). We coded each study's approach, learning context, skill level, modality, pedagogy, and outcomes (k = .918). Three patterns emerged: (1) approach-context-pedagogy coupling (GBL more prevalent in informal settings, while gamification dominated formal classrooms [p < .001] and favored project-based learning [p = .009]); (2) emphasis on introductory programming and modular kits, with limited adoption of advanced software (~17%), advanced hardware (~5%), or immersive technologies (~22%); and (3) short study horizons, relying on self-report. We propose eight research directions and a design space outlining best practices and pitfalls, offering actionable guidance for robotics education.

Dominic Kao, Rabindra Ratan, Christos Mousas et al.

Avatar customization is known to positively affect crucial outcomes in numerous domains. However, it is unknown whether audial customization can confer the same benefits as visual customization. We conducted a preregistered 2 x 2 (visual choice vs. visual assignment x audial choice vs. audial assignment) study in a Java programming game. Participants with visual choice experienced higher avatar identification and autonomy. Participants with audial choice experienced higher avatar identification and autonomy, but only within the group of participants who had visual choice available. Visual choice led to an increase in time spent, and indirectly led to increases in intrinsic motivation, immersion, time spent, future play motivation, and likelihood of game recommendation. Audial choice moderated the majority of these effects. Our results suggest that audial customization plays an important enhancing role vis-à-vis visual customization. However, audial customization appears to have a weaker effect compared to visual customization. We discuss the implications for avatar customization more generally across digital applications.

Dominic Kao, Christos Mousas, Alejandra J. Magana et al.

In this article we describe Hack.VR, an object-oriented programming game in virtual reality. Hack.VR uses a VR programming language in which nodes represent functions and node connections represent data flow. Using this programming framework, players reprogram VR objects such as elevators, robots, and switches. Hack.VR has been designed to be highly interactable both physically and semantically.

Dominic Kao

Help facilities have been crucial in helping users learn about software for decades. But despite widespread prevalence of game engines and game editors that ship with many of today's most popular games, there is a lack of empirical evidence on how help facilities impact game-making. For instance, certain types of help facilities may help users more than others. To better understand help facilities, we created game-making software that allowed us to systematically vary the type of help available. We then ran a study of 1646 participants that compared six help facility conditions: 1) Text Help, 2) Interactive Help, 3) Intelligent Agent Help, 4) Video Help, 5) All Help, and 6) No Help. Each participant created their own first-person shooter game level using our game-making software with a randomly assigned help facility condition. Results indicate that Interactive Help has a greater positive impact on time spent, controls learnability, learning motivation, total editor activity, and game level quality. Video Help is a close second across these same measures.