Chuanyang Jin

Shunchi Zhang, Jin Lu, Chuanyang Jin et al.

Effective real-world assistance requires AI agents with robust Theory of Mind (ToM): inferring human mental states from their behavior. Despite recent advances, several key challenges remain, including (1) online inference with robust uncertainty updates over multiple hypotheses; (2) efficient reasoning suitable for real-time assistance; and (3) the lack of ground-truth mental state annotations in real-world domains. We address these challenges by introducing MindZero, a self-supervised reinforcement learning framework that trains multimodal large language models (MLLMs) for efficient and robust online mental reasoning. During training, the model is rewarded for generating mental state hypotheses that maximize the likelihood of observed actions estimated by a planner, similar to model-based ToM reasoning. This method thus eliminates the need for explicit mental state annotations. After training, MindZero internalizes model-based reasoning into fast single-pass inference. We evaluate MindZero against baselines across challenging mental reasoning and AI assistance tasks in gridworld and household domains. We found that LLMs alone are insufficient; model-based methods improve accuracy but are slow, costly, and limited by backbone MLLM capacity. In contrast, MindZero enhances MLLMs' intrinsic ToM ability and significantly outperforms model-based methods in both accuracy and efficiency, showing that mental reasoning can be effectively learned as a self-supervised skill.

Kunal Jha, Tuan Anh Le, Chuanyang Jin et al.

Multi-agent interactions, such as communication, teaching, and bluffing, often rely on higher-order social inference, i.e., understanding how others infer oneself. Such intricate reasoning can be effectively modeled through nested multi-agent reasoning. Nonetheless, the computational complexity escalates exponentially with each level of reasoning, posing a significant challenge. However, humans effortlessly perform complex social inferences as part of their daily lives. To bridge the gap between human-like inference capabilities and computational limitations, we propose a novel approach: leveraging neural networks to amortize high-order social inference, thereby expediting nested multi-agent reasoning. We evaluate our method in two challenging multi-agent interaction domains. The experimental results demonstrate that our method is computationally efficient while exhibiting minimal degradation in accuracy.

Chuanyang Jin, Songyang Zhang, Tianmin Shu et al.

The prevalent use of Large Language Models (LLMs) has necessitated studying their mental models, yielding noteworthy theoretical and practical implications. Current research has demonstrated that state-of-the-art LLMs, such as ChatGPT, exhibit certain theory of mind capabilities and possess relatively stable Big Five and/or MBTI personality traits. In addition, cognitive process features form an essential component of these mental models. Research in cultural psychology indicated significant differences in the cognitive processes of Eastern and Western people when processing information and making judgments. While Westerners predominantly exhibit analytical thinking that isolates things from their environment to analyze their nature independently, Easterners often showcase holistic thinking, emphasizing relationships and adopting a global viewpoint. In our research, we probed the cultural cognitive traits of ChatGPT. We employed two scales that directly measure the cognitive process: the Analysis-Holism Scale (AHS) and the Triadic Categorization Task (TCT). Additionally, we used two scales that investigate the value differences shaped by cultural thinking: the Dialectical Self Scale (DSS) and the Self-construal Scale (SCS). In cognitive process tests (AHS/TCT), ChatGPT consistently tends towards Eastern holistic thinking, but regarding value judgments (DSS/SCS), ChatGPT does not significantly lean towards the East or the West. We suggest that the result could be attributed to both the training paradigm and the training data in LLM development. We discuss the potential value of this finding for AI research and directions for future research.

Haojun Shi, Suyu Ye, Xinyu Fang et al.

Understanding people's social interactions in complex real-world scenarios often relies on intricate mental reasoning. To truly understand how and why people interact with one another, we must infer the underlying mental states that give rise to the social interactions, i.e., Theory of Mind reasoning in multi-agent interactions. Additionally, social interactions are often multi-modal -- we can watch people's actions, hear their conversations, and/or read about their past behaviors. For AI systems to successfully and safely interact with people in real-world environments, they also need to understand people's mental states as well as their inferences about each other's mental states based on multi-modal information about their interactions. For this, we introduce MuMA-ToM, a Multi-modal Multi-Agent Theory of Mind benchmark. MuMA-ToM is the first multi-modal Theory of Mind benchmark that evaluates mental reasoning in embodied multi-agent interactions. In MuMA-ToM, we provide video and text descriptions of people's multi-modal behavior in realistic household environments. Based on the context, we then ask questions about people's goals, beliefs, and beliefs about others' goals. We validated MuMA-ToM in a human experiment and provided a human baseline. We also proposed a novel multi-modal, multi-agent ToM model, LIMP (Language model-based Inverse Multi-agent Planning). Our experimental results show that LIMP significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods, including large multi-modal models (e.g., GPT-4o, Gemini-1.5 Pro) and a recent multi-modal ToM model, BIP-ALM.

Qiushi Sun, Kanzhi Cheng, Zichen Ding et al. · oxford

Graphical User Interface (GUI) agents powered by Vision-Language Models (VLMs) have demonstrated human-like computer control capability. Despite their utility in advancing digital automation, a critical bottleneck persists: collecting high-quality trajectory data for training. Common practices for collecting such data rely on human supervision or synthetic data generation through executing pre-defined tasks, which are either resource-intensive or unable to guarantee data quality. Moreover, these methods suffer from limited data diversity and significant gaps between synthetic data and real-world environments. To address these challenges, we propose OS-Genesis, a novel GUI data synthesis pipeline that reverses the conventional trajectory collection process. Instead of relying on pre-defined tasks, OS-Genesis enables agents first to perceive environments and perform step-wise interactions, then retrospectively derive high-quality tasks to enable trajectory-level exploration. A trajectory reward model is then employed to ensure the quality of the generated trajectories. We demonstrate that training GUI agents with OS-Genesis significantly improves their performance on highly challenging online benchmarks. In-depth analysis further validates OS-Genesis's efficiency and its superior data quality and diversity compared to existing synthesis methods. Our codes, data, and checkpoints are available at https://qiushisun.github.io/OS-Genesis-Home/.

Chuanyang Jin, Binze Li, Haopeng Xie et al.

Conversational AI has now reached billions of users, yet existing datasets capture only what people say, not what they think. We introduce ThoughtTrace, the first large-scale dataset that pairs real-world multi-turn human--AI conversations with users' self-reported thoughts: their reasons for sending prompts and reactions to assistant responses. ThoughtTrace comprises 1,058 users, 2,155 conversations, 17,058 turns, and 10,174 thought annotations collected across 20 language models. Our analysis shows that ThoughtTrace captures long-horizon, topically diverse interactions, and that thoughts are semantically distinct from messages, difficult for frontier LLMs to infer from context, diverse in content, and tied to conversation stages. We further demonstrate the utility of thoughts for downstream modeling. First, thoughts improve user-behavior prediction as inference-time context. Second, thought-guided rewrites provide fine-grained alignment signals for training personalized assistants. Together, ThoughtTrace establishes user thoughts as a new data modality for studying the cognitive dynamics behind human--AI interaction and provides a foundation for building assistants that better understand and adapt to users' latent goals, preferences, and needs.

Qiyue Gao, Xinyu Pi, Kevin Liu et al. · cmu

Internal world models (WMs) enable agents to understand the world's state and predict transitions, serving as the basis for advanced deliberative reasoning. Recent large Vision-Language Models (VLMs), such as OpenAI o3, GPT-4o and Gemini, exhibit potential as general-purpose WMs. While the latest studies have evaluated and shown limitations in specific capabilities such as visual understanding, a systematic evaluation of VLMs' fundamental WM abilities remains absent. Drawing on comparative psychology and cognitive science, we propose a two-stage framework that assesses Perception (visual, spatial, temporal, quantitative, and motion) and Prediction (mechanistic simulation, transitive inference, compositional inference) to provide an atomic evaluation of VLMs as WMs. Guided by this framework, we introduce WM-ABench, a large-scale benchmark comprising 23 fine-grained evaluation dimensions across 6 diverse simulated environments with controlled counterfactual simulations. Through 660 experiments on 15 latest commercial and open-source VLMs, we find that these models exhibit striking limitations in basic world modeling abilities. For instance, almost all models perform at near-random accuracy when distinguishing motion trajectories. Additionally, they lack disentangled understanding -- e.g., some models tend to believe blue objects move faster than green ones. More rich results and analyses reveal significant gaps between VLMs and human-level world modeling.

Long Phan, Alice Gatti, Ziwen Han et al. · amazon-science, apple-ml

Benchmarks are important tools for tracking the rapid advancements in large language model (LLM) capabilities. However, benchmarks are not keeping pace in difficulty: LLMs now achieve over 90\% accuracy on popular benchmarks like MMLU, limiting informed measurement of state-of-the-art LLM capabilities. In response, we introduce Humanity's Last Exam (HLE), a multi-modal benchmark at the frontier of human knowledge, designed to be the final closed-ended academic benchmark of its kind with broad subject coverage. HLE consists of 2,500 questions across dozens of subjects, including mathematics, humanities, and the natural sciences. HLE is developed globally by subject-matter experts and consists of multiple-choice and short-answer questions suitable for automated grading. Each question has a known solution that is unambiguous and easily verifiable, but cannot be quickly answered via internet retrieval. State-of-the-art LLMs demonstrate low accuracy and calibration on HLE, highlighting a significant gap between current LLM capabilities and the expert human frontier on closed-ended academic questions. To inform research and policymaking upon a clear understanding of model capabilities, we publicly release HLE at https://lastexam.ai.

Chuanyang Jin

Image captioning, a fundamental task in vision-language understanding, seeks to generate accurate natural language descriptions for provided images. Current image captioning approaches heavily rely on high-quality image-caption pairs, which can be hard to obtain for many domains. To address this, we introduce a self-supervised image captioning method. After learning an initial signal from a small labeled dataset, our method transitions to self-supervised learning on unlabeled data, leveraging the auxiliary task of enhancing the CLIP relevance between images and generated captions. Remarkably, despite utilizing less than 2% of the labeled COCO dataset, our method delivers a performance comparable to state-of-the-art models trained on the complete dataset. Human evaluations further reveal that our method produces captions with greater distinctiveness and informativeness, two attributes inherently challenging to achieve through supervised learning.

Tao Feng, Chuanyang Jin, Jingyu Liu et al.

The evolution of artificial intelligence (AI) has profoundly impacted human society, driving significant advancements in multiple sectors. AGI, distinguished by its ability to execute diverse real-world tasks with efficiency and effectiveness comparable to human intelligence, reflects a paramount milestone in AI evolution. While existing studies have reviewed specific advancements in AI and proposed potential paths to AGI, such as large language models (LLMs), they fall short of providing a thorough exploration of AGI's definitions, objectives, and developmental trajectories. Unlike previous survey papers, this work goes beyond summarizing LLMs by addressing key questions about our progress toward AGI and outlining the strategies essential for its realization through comprehensive analysis, in-depth discussions, and novel insights. We start by articulating the requisite capability frameworks for AGI, integrating the internal, interface, and system dimensions. As the realization of AGI requires more advanced capabilities and adherence to stringent constraints, we further discuss necessary AGI alignment technologies to harmonize these factors. Notably, we emphasize the importance of approaching AGI responsibly by first defining the key levels of AGI progression, followed by the evaluation framework that situates the status quo, and finally giving our roadmap of how to reach the pinnacle of AGI. Moreover, to give tangible insights into the ubiquitous impact of the integration of AI, we outline existing challenges and potential pathways toward AGI in multiple domains. In sum, serving as a pioneering exploration into the current state and future trajectory of AGI, this paper aims to foster a collective comprehension and catalyze broader public discussions among researchers and practitioners on AGI.

Zhining Zhang, Chuanyang Jin, Mung Yao Jia et al.

Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to understand people's minds based on their behavior, is key to developing socially intelligent agents. Current approaches to ToM reasoning either rely on prompting Large Language Models (LLMs), which are prone to systematic errors, or use handcrafted, rigid agent models for model-based inference, which are more robust but fail to generalize across domains. In this work, we introduce AutoToM, an automated agent modeling method for scalable, robust, and interpretable mental inference. Given a ToM problem, AutoToM first proposes an initial agent model and then performs automated Bayesian inverse planning based on this model, leveraging an LLM backend. Guided by inference uncertainty, it iteratively refines the model by introducing additional mental variables and/or incorporating more timesteps in the context. Across five diverse benchmarks, AutoToM outperforms existing ToM methods and even large reasoning models. Additionally, we show that AutoToM can produce human-like confidence estimates and enable online mental inference for embodied decision-making.

Vishakh Padmakumar, Chuanyang Jin, Hannah Rose Kirk et al.

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed via public-facing interfaces to interact with millions of users, each with diverse preferences. Despite this, preference tuning of LLMs predominantly relies on reward models trained using binary judgments where annotators select the preferred choice out of pairs of model outputs. In this work, we argue that this reliance on binary choices does not capture the broader, aggregate preferences of the target user in real-world tasks. We propose a taxonomy that identifies two dimensions of subjectivity where different users disagree on the preferred output-namely, the Plurality of Responses to Prompts, where prompts allow for multiple correct answers, and the Indistinguishability of Responses, where candidate outputs are paraphrases of each other. We show that reward models correlate weakly with user preferences in these cases. As a first step to address this issue, we introduce a simple yet effective method that augments existing binary preference datasets with synthetic preference judgments to estimate potential user disagreement. Incorporating these via a margin term as a form of regularization during model training yields predictions that better align with the aggregate user preferences.

Bo Liu, Chuanyang Jin, Seungone Kim et al. · meta-ai

Self-improving systems require environmental interaction for continuous adaptation. We introduce SPICE (Self-Play In Corpus Environments), a reinforcement learning framework where a single model acts in two roles: a Challenger that mines documents from a large corpus to generate diverse reasoning tasks, and a Reasoner that solves them. Through adversarial dynamics, the Challenger creates an automatic curriculum at the frontier of the Reasoner's capability, while corpus grounding provides the rich, near-inexhaustible external signal necessary for sustained improvement. Unlike existing ungrounded self-play methods that offer more limited benefits, SPICE achieves consistent gains across mathematical (+8.9%) and general reasoning (+9.8%) benchmarks on multiple model families. Our analysis reveals how document grounding is a key ingredient in SPICE to continuously generate its own increasingly challenging goals and achieve them, enabling sustained self-improvement.

Chuanyang Jin, Jing Xu, Bo Liu et al.

We posit that to achieve continual model improvement and multifaceted alignment, future models must learn from natural human interaction. Current conversational models are aligned using pre-annotated, expert-generated human feedback. In this work, we introduce Reinforcement Learning from Human Interaction (RLHI), a paradigm that learns directly from in-the-wild user conversations. We develop two complementary methods: (1) RLHI with User-Guided Rewrites, which revises unsatisfactory model outputs based on users' natural-language follow-up responses, (2) RLHI with User-Based Rewards, which learns via a reward model conditioned on knowledge of the user's long-term interaction history (termed persona). Together, these methods link long-term user personas to turn-level preferences via persona-conditioned preference optimization. Trained on conversations derived from WildChat, both RLHI variants outperform strong baselines in personalization and instruction-following, and similar feedback enhances performance on reasoning benchmarks. These results suggest organic human interaction offers scalable, effective supervision for personalized alignment.

Xianzhe Fan, Xuhui Zhou, Chuanyang Jin et al.

Humans continuously infer the states, goals, and behaviors of others by perceiving their surroundings in dynamic, real-world social interactions. However, most Theory of Mind (ToM) benchmarks only evaluate static, text-based scenarios, which have a significant gap compared to real interactions. We propose the SoMi-ToM benchmark, designed to evaluate multi-perspective ToM in embodied multi-agent complex social interactions. This benchmark is based on rich multimodal interaction data generated by the interaction environment SoMi, covering diverse crafting goals and social relationships. Our framework supports multi-level evaluation: (1) first-person evaluation provides multimodal (visual, dialogue, action, etc.) input from a first-person perspective during a task for real-time state inference, (2) third-person evaluation provides complete third-person perspective video and text records after a task for goal and behavior inference. This evaluation method allows for a more comprehensive examination of a model's ToM capabilities from both the subjective immediate experience and the objective global observation. We constructed a challenging dataset containing 35 third-person perspective videos, 363 first-person perspective images, and 1225 expert-annotated multiple-choice questions (three options). On this dataset, we systematically evaluated the performance of human subjects and several state-of-the-art large vision-language models (LVLMs). The results show that LVLMs perform significantly worse than humans on SoMi-ToM: the average accuracy gap between humans and models is 40.1% in first-person evaluation and 26.4% in third-person evaluation. This indicates that future LVLMs need to further improve their ToM capabilities in embodied, complex social interactions.

Chuanyang Jin, Yutong Wu, Jing Cao et al.

Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to understand people's mental states, is an essential ingredient for developing machines with human-level social intelligence. Recent machine learning models, particularly large language models, seem to show some aspects of ToM understanding. However, existing ToM benchmarks use unimodal datasets - either video or text. Human ToM, on the other hand, is more than video or text understanding. People can flexibly reason about another person's mind based on conceptual representations (e.g., goals, beliefs, plans) extracted from any available data. To address this, we introduce a multimodal Theory of Mind question answering (MMToM-QA) benchmark. MMToM-QA comprehensively evaluates machine ToM both on multimodal data and on different kinds of unimodal data about a person's activity in a household environment. To engineer multimodal ToM capacity, we propose a novel method, BIP-ALM (Bayesian Inverse Planning Accelerated by Language Models). BIP-ALM extracts unified representations from multimodal data and utilizes language models for scalable Bayesian inverse planning. We conducted a systematic comparison of human performance, BIP-ALM, and state-of-the-art models, including GPT-4. The experiments demonstrate that large language models and large multimodal models still lack robust ToM capacity. BIP-ALM, on the other hand, shows promising results, by leveraging the power of both model-based mental inference and language models.