Masahiro Oda

Pochuan Wang, Chen Shen, Weichung Wang et al.

Developing a generalized segmentation model capable of simultaneously delineating multiple organs and diseases is highly desirable. Federated learning (FL) is a key technology enabling the collaborative development of a model without exchanging training data. However, the limited access to fully annotated training data poses a major challenge to training generalizable models. We propose "ConDistFL", a framework to solve this problem by combining FL with knowledge distillation. Local models can extract the knowledge of unlabeled organs and tumors from partially annotated data from the global model with an adequately designed conditional probability representation. We validate our framework on four distinct partially annotated abdominal CT datasets from the MSD and KiTS19 challenges. The experimental results show that the proposed framework significantly outperforms FedAvg and FedOpt baselines. Moreover, the performance on an external test dataset demonstrates superior generalizability compared to models trained on each dataset separately. Our ablation study suggests that ConDistFL can perform well without frequent aggregation, reducing the communication cost of FL. Our implementation will be available at https://github.com/NVIDIA/NVFlare/tree/dev/research/condist-fl.

Masahiro Oda, Kazuhiro Furukawa, Nassir Navab et al.

We propose a spatio-temporal mixing kinematic data estimation method to estimate the shape of the colon with deformations caused by colonoscope insertion. Endoscope tracking or a navigation system that navigates physicians to target positions is needed to reduce such complications as organ perforations. Although many previous methods focused to track bronchoscopes and surgical endoscopes, few number of colonoscope tracking methods were proposed. This is because the colon largely deforms during colonoscope insertion. The deformation causes significant tracking errors. Colon deformation should be taken into account in the tracking process. We propose a colon shape estimation method using a Kinematic Spatio-Temporal data Mixer (KST-Mixer) that can be used during colonoscope insertions to the colon. Kinematic data of a colonoscope and the colon, including positions and directions of their centerlines, are obtained using electromagnetic and depth sensors. The proposed method separates the data into sub-groups along the spatial and temporal axes. The KST-Mixer extracts kinematic features and mix them along the spatial and temporal axes multiple times. We evaluated colon shape estimation accuracies in phantom studies. The proposed method achieved 11.92 mm mean Euclidean distance error, the smallest of the previous methods. Statistical analysis indicated that the proposed method significantly reduced the error compared to the previous methods.

Yunheng Wu, Wenqi Huang, Liangyi Wang et al.

Whole-slide images (WSIs) are fundamental for computational pathology, where accurate lesion segmentation is critical for clinical decision making. Existing methods partition WSIs into discrete patches, disrupting spatial continuity and treating multi-resolution views as independent samples, which leads to spatially fragmented segmentation and reduced robustness to resolution variations. To address the issues, we propose WSI-INR, a novel patch-free framework based on Implicit Neural Representations (INRs). WSI-INR models the WSI as a continuous implicit function mapping spatial coordinates directly to tissue semantics features, outputting segmentation results while preserving intrinsic spatial information across the entire slide. In the WSI-INR, we incorporate multi-resolution hash grid encoding to regard different resolution levels as varying sampling densities of the same continuous tissue, achieving a consistent feature representation across resolutions. In addition, by jointly training a shared INR decoder, WSI-INR can capture general priors across different cases. Experimental results showed that WSI-INR maintains robust segmentation performance across resolutions; at Base/4, our resolution-specific optimization improves Dice score by +26.11%, while U-Net and TransUNet decrease by 54.28% and 36.18%, respectively. Crucially, this work enables INRs to segment highly heterogeneous pathological lesions beyond structurally consistent anatomical tissues, offering a fresh perspective for pathological analysis.

Ryo Toda, Hayato Itoh, Masahiro Oda et al.

This paper presents a fully-automated method for the identification of suspicious regions of a coronavirus disease (COVID-19) on chest CT volumes. One major role of chest CT scanning in COVID-19 diagnoses is identification of an inflammation particular to the disease. This task is generally performed by radiologists through an interpretation of the CT volumes, however, because of the heavy workload, an automatic analysis method using a computer is desired. Most computer-aided diagnosis studies have addressed only a portion of the elements necessary for the identification. In this work, we realize the identification method through a classification task by using a 2.5-dimensional CNN with three-dimensional attention mechanisms. We visualize the suspicious regions by applying a backpropagation based on positive gradients to attention-weighted features. We perform experiments on an in-house dataset and two public datasets to reveal the generalization ability of the proposed method. The proposed architecture achieved AUCs of over 0.900 for all the datasets, and mean sensitivity $0.853 \pm 0.036$ and specificity $0.870 \pm 0.040$. The method can also identify notable lesions pointed out in the radiology report as suspicious regions.

Hanna Hoffmann, Setareh Bady, Claas de Boer et al.

Achieving high levels of surgical skill through effective training is essential for optimal patient outcomes. Automated, data-driven skill assessment holds significant potential to improve surgical training. While machine learning-based methods are increasingly popular for assessing skills in minimally invasive surgery, their application to open surgery remains limited. We present the results of a dedicated MICCAI challenge designed to benchmark and advance vision-based skill assessment in open surgery. The challenge dataset comprises videos of an open suturing training task recorded with a static GoPro camera in a dry-lab setting, with instrument trajectories available in addition to the primary video modality. The OSS Challenge was hosted over two consecutive years, comprising two and three independent tasks, respectively: (1) classifying skill level into four classes, (2) predicting the full Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills across eight categories, and (3) tracking hands and surgical tools. Participants submitted diverse solutions including deep learning-based video models, tracking-driven methods, and hybrid approaches. General-purpose spatiotemporal video models consistently achieved the strongest performance, though conceptually diverse approaches reached competitive levels when well-executed. Predicting fine-grained OSATS scores remains challenging but benefits substantially from increased training data. Keypoint tracking proves difficult given frequent occlusions and out-of-frame instances, limiting current applicability for motion-based skill analysis. This work benchmarks innovative and diverse solutions for surgical skill assessment, highlighting both the promise and current limitations of video-based evaluation in open surgery and identifying critical directions for advancing automated skill assessment toward clinical impact.

Zhou Zheng, Yuichiro Hayashi, Masahiro Oda et al.

In this paper, we study weakly-supervised laparoscopic image segmentation with sparse annotations. We introduce a novel Bayesian deep learning approach designed to enhance both the accuracy and interpretability of the model's segmentation, founded upon a comprehensive Bayesian framework, ensuring a robust and theoretically validated method. Our approach diverges from conventional methods that directly train using observed images and their corresponding weak annotations. Instead, we estimate the joint distribution of both images and labels given the acquired data. This facilitates the sampling of images and their high-quality pseudo-labels, enabling the training of a generalizable segmentation model. Each component of our model is expressed through probabilistic formulations, providing a coherent and interpretable structure. This probabilistic nature benefits accurate and practical learning from sparse annotations and equips our model with the ability to quantify uncertainty. Extensive evaluations with two public laparoscopic datasets demonstrated the efficacy of our method, which consistently outperformed existing methods. Furthermore, our method was adapted for scribble-supervised cardiac multi-structure segmentation, presenting competitive performance compared to previous methods. The code is available at https://github.com/MoriLabNU/Bayesian_WSS.

Holger R. Roth, Hirohisa Oda, Xiangrong Zhou et al.

Recent advances in 3D fully convolutional networks (FCN) have made it feasible to produce dense voxel-wise predictions of volumetric images. In this work, we show that a multi-class 3D FCN trained on manually labeled CT scans of several anatomical structures (ranging from the large organs to thin vessels) can achieve competitive segmentation results, while avoiding the need for handcrafting features or training class-specific models. To this end, we propose a two-stage, coarse-to-fine approach that will first use a 3D FCN to roughly define a candidate region, which will then be used as input to a second 3D FCN. This reduces the number of voxels the second FCN has to classify to ~10% and allows it to focus on more detailed segmentation of the organs and vessels. We utilize training and validation sets consisting of 331 clinical CT images and test our models on a completely unseen data collection acquired at a different hospital that includes 150 CT scans, targeting three anatomical organs (liver, spleen, and pancreas). In challenging organs such as the pancreas, our cascaded approach improves the mean Dice score from 68.5 to 82.2%, achieving the highest reported average score on this dataset. We compare with a 2D FCN method on a separate dataset of 240 CT scans with 18 classes and achieve a significantly higher performance in small organs and vessels. Furthermore, we explore fine-tuning our models to different datasets. Our experiments illustrate the promise and robustness of current 3D FCN based semantic segmentation of medical images, achieving state-of-the-art results. Our code and trained models are available for download: https://github.com/holgerroth/3Dunet_abdomen_cascade.

Pochuan Wang, Chen Shen, Masahiro Oda et al.

In medical imaging, developing generalized segmentation models that can handle multiple organs and lesions is crucial. However, the scarcity of fully annotated datasets and strict privacy regulations present significant barriers to data sharing. Federated Learning (FL) allows decentralized model training, but existing FL methods often struggle with partial labeling, leading to model divergence and catastrophic forgetting. We propose ConDistFL, a novel FL framework incorporating conditional distillation to address these challenges. ConDistFL enables effective learning from partially labeled datasets, significantly improving segmentation accuracy across distributed and non-uniform datasets. In addition to its superior segmentation performance, ConDistFL maintains computational and communication efficiency, ensuring its scalability for real-world applications. Furthermore, ConDistFL demonstrates remarkable generalizability, significantly outperforming existing FL methods in out-of-federation tests, even adapting to unseen contrast phases (e.g., non-contrast CT images) in our experiments. Extensive evaluations on 3D CT and 2D chest X-ray datasets show that ConDistFL is an efficient, adaptable solution for collaborative medical image segmentation in privacy-constrained settings.

Masahiro Oda, Tomoaki Suito, Yuichiro Hayashi et al.

CT image-based diagnosis of the stomach is developed as a new way of diagnostic method. A virtual unfolded (VU) view is suitable for displaying its wall. In this paper, we propose a semi-automated method for generating VU views of the stomach. Our method requires minimum manual operations. The determination of the unfolding forces and the termination of the unfolding process are automated. The unfolded shape of the stomach is estimated based on its radius. The unfolding forces are determined so that the stomach wall is deformed to the expected shape. The iterative deformation process is terminated if the difference of the shapes between the deformed shape and expected shape is small. Our experiments using 67 CT volumes showed that our proposed method can generate good VU views for 76.1% cases.

Masahiro Oda, Kiyohito Tanaka, Hirotsugu Takabatake et al.

This paper proposes a realistic image generation method for visualization in endoscopic simulation systems. Endoscopic diagnosis and treatment are performed in many hospitals. To reduce complications related to endoscope insertions, endoscopic simulation systems are used for training or rehearsal of endoscope insertions. However, current simulation systems generate non-realistic virtual endoscopic images. To improve the value of the simulation systems, improvement of reality of their generated images is necessary. We propose a realistic image generation method for endoscopic simulation systems. Virtual endoscopic images are generated by using a volume rendering method from a CT volume of a patient. We improve the reality of the virtual endoscopic images using a virtual-to-real image-domain translation technique. The image-domain translator is implemented as a fully convolutional network (FCN). We train the FCN by minimizing a cycle consistency loss function. The FCN is trained using unpaired virtual and real endoscopic images. To obtain high quality image-domain translation results, we perform an image cleansing to the real endoscopic image set. We tested to use the shallow U-Net, U-Net, deep U-Net, and U-Net having residual units as the image-domain translator. The deep U-Net and U-Net having residual units generated quite realistic images.

Masahiro Oda, Hayato Itoh, Kiyohito Tanaka et al.

We propose a depth estimation method from a single-shot monocular endoscopic image using Lambertian surface translation by domain adaptation and depth estimation using multi-scale edge loss. We employ a two-step estimation process including Lambertian surface translation from unpaired data and depth estimation. The texture and specular reflection on the surface of an organ reduce the accuracy of depth estimations. We apply Lambertian surface translation to an endoscopic image to remove these texture and reflections. Then, we estimate the depth by using a fully convolutional network (FCN). During the training of the FCN, improvement of the object edge similarity between an estimated image and a ground truth depth image is important for getting better results. We introduced a muti-scale edge loss function to improve the accuracy of depth estimation. We quantitatively evaluated the proposed method using real colonoscopic images. The estimated depth values were proportional to the real depth values. Furthermore, we applied the estimated depth images to automated anatomical location identification of colonoscopic images using a convolutional neural network. The identification accuracy of the network improved from 69.2% to 74.1% by using the estimated depth images.

Masahiro Oda, Tong Zheng, Yuichiro Hayashi et al.

This paper proposes a segmentation method of infection regions in the lung from CT volumes of COVID-19 patients. COVID-19 spread worldwide, causing many infected patients and deaths. CT image-based diagnosis of COVID-19 can provide quick and accurate diagnosis results. An automated segmentation method of infection regions in the lung provides a quantitative criterion for diagnosis. Previous methods employ whole 2D image or 3D volume-based processes. Infection regions have a considerable variation in their sizes. Such processes easily miss small infection regions. Patch-based process is effective for segmenting small targets. However, selecting the appropriate patch size is difficult in infection region segmentation. We utilize the scale uncertainty among various receptive field sizes of a segmentation FCN to obtain infection regions. The receptive field sizes can be defined as the patch size and the resolution of volumes where patches are clipped from. This paper proposes an infection segmentation network (ISNet) that performs patch-based segmentation and a scale uncertainty-aware prediction aggregation method that refines the segmentation result. We design ISNet to segment infection regions that have various intensity values. ISNet has multiple encoding paths to process patch volumes normalized by multiple intensity ranges. We collect prediction results generated by ISNets having various receptive field sizes. Scale uncertainty among the prediction results is extracted by the prediction aggregation method. We use an aggregation FCN to generate a refined segmentation result considering scale uncertainty among the predictions. In our experiments using 199 chest CT volumes of COVID-19 cases, the prediction aggregation method improved the dice similarity score from 47.6% to 62.1%.

Masahiro Oda, Yuichiro Hayashi, Yoshito Otake et al.

This paper proposes an automated segmentation method of infection and normal regions in the lung from CT volumes of COVID-19 patients. From December 2019, novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) spreads over the world and giving significant impacts to our economic activities and daily lives. To diagnose the large number of infected patients, diagnosis assistance by computers is needed. Chest CT is effective for diagnosis of viral pneumonia including COVID-19. A quantitative analysis method of condition of the lung from CT volumes by computers is required for diagnosis assistance of COVID-19. This paper proposes an automated segmentation method of infection and normal regions in the lung from CT volumes using a COVID-19 segmentation fully convolutional network (FCN). In diagnosis of lung diseases including COVID-19, analysis of conditions of normal and infection regions in the lung is important. Our method recognizes and segments lung normal and infection regions in CT volumes. To segment infection regions that have various shapes and sizes, we introduced dense pooling connections and dilated convolutions in our FCN. We applied the proposed method to CT volumes of COVID-19 cases. From mild to severe cases of COVID-19, the proposed method correctly segmented normal and infection regions in the lung. Dice scores of normal and infection regions were 0.911 and 0.753, respectively.

Chen Shen, Pochuan Wang, Holger R. Roth et al.

Federated learning (FL) for medical image segmentation becomes more challenging in multi-task settings where clients might have different categories of labels represented in their data. For example, one client might have patient data with "healthy'' pancreases only while datasets from other clients may contain cases with pancreatic tumors. The vanilla federated averaging algorithm makes it possible to obtain more generalizable deep learning-based segmentation models representing the training data from multiple institutions without centralizing datasets. However, it might be sub-optimal for the aforementioned multi-task scenarios. In this paper, we investigate heterogeneous optimization methods that show improvements for the automated segmentation of pancreas and pancreatic tumors in abdominal CT images with FL settings.

Tong Zheng, Hirohisa Oda, Masahiro Oda et al.

This paper proposes a novel, unsupervised super-resolution (SR) approach for performing the SR of a clinical CT into the resolution level of a micro CT ($μ$CT). The precise non-invasive diagnosis of lung cancer typically utilizes clinical CT data. Due to the resolution limitations of clinical CT (about $0.5 \times 0.5 \times 0.5$ mm$^3$), it is difficult to obtain enough pathological information such as the invasion area at alveoli level. On the other hand, $μ$CT scanning allows the acquisition of volumes of lung specimens with much higher resolution ($50 \times 50 \times 50 μ{\rm m}^3$ or higher). Thus, super-resolution of clinical CT volume may be helpful for diagnosis of lung cancer. Typical SR methods require aligned pairs of low-resolution (LR) and high-resolution (HR) images for training. Unfortunately, obtaining paired clinical CT and $μ$CT volumes of human lung tissues is infeasible. Unsupervised SR methods are required that do not need paired LR and HR images. In this paper, we create corresponding clinical CT-$μ$CT pairs by simulating clinical CT images from $μ$CT images by modified CycleGAN. After this, we use simulated clinical CT-$μ$CT image pairs to train an SR network based on SRGAN. Finally, we use the trained SR network to perform SR of the clinical CT images. We compare our proposed method with another unsupervised SR method for clinical CT images named SR-CycleGAN. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can successfully perform SR of clinical CT images of lung cancer patients with $μ$CT level resolution, and quantitatively and qualitatively outperformed conventional method (SR-CycleGAN), improving the SSIM (structure similarity) form 0.40 to 0.51.

Pochuan Wang, Chen Shen, Holger R. Roth et al.

The performance of deep learning-based methods strongly relies on the number of datasets used for training. Many efforts have been made to increase the data in the medical image analysis field. However, unlike photography images, it is hard to generate centralized databases to collect medical images because of numerous technical, legal, and privacy issues. In this work, we study the use of federated learning between two institutions in a real-world setting to collaboratively train a model without sharing the raw data across national boundaries. We quantitatively compare the segmentation models obtained with federated learning and local training alone. Our experimental results show that federated learning models have higher generalizability than standalone training.

Masahiro Oda, Natsuki Shimizu, Ken'ichi Karasawa et al.

This paper proposes a fully automated atlas-based pancreas segmentation method from CT volumes utilizing atlas localization by regression forest and atlas generation using blood vessel information. Previous probabilistic atlas-based pancreas segmentation methods cannot deal with spatial variations that are commonly found in the pancreas well. Also, shape variations are not represented by an averaged atlas. We propose a fully automated pancreas segmentation method that deals with two types of variations mentioned above. The position and size of the pancreas is estimated using a regression forest technique. After localization, a patient-specific probabilistic atlas is generated based on a new image similarity that reflects the blood vessel position and direction information around the pancreas. We segment it using the EM algorithm with the atlas as prior followed by the graph-cut. In evaluation results using 147 CT volumes, the Jaccard index and the Dice overlap of the proposed method were 62.1% and 75.1%, respectively. Although we automated all of the segmentation processes, segmentation results were superior to the other state-of-the-art methods in the Dice overlap.

Masahiro Oda, Takefumi Yamaguchi, Hideki Fukuoka et al.

This paper presents an automated classification method of infective and non-infective diseases from anterior eye images. Treatments for cases of infective and non-infective diseases are different. Distinguishing them from anterior eye images is important to decide a treatment plan. Ophthalmologists distinguish them empirically. Quantitative classification of them based on computer assistance is necessary. We propose an automated classification method of anterior eye images into cases of infective or non-infective disease. Anterior eye images have large variations of the eye position and brightness of illumination. This makes the classification difficult. If we focus on the cornea, positions of opacified areas in the corneas are different between cases of the infective and non-infective diseases. Therefore, we solve the anterior eye image classification task by using an object detection approach targeting the cornea. This approach can be said as "anatomical structure focused image classification". We use the YOLOv3 object detection method to detect corneas of infective disease and corneas of non-infective disease. The detection result is used to define a classification result of a image. In our experiments using anterior eye images, 88.3% of images were correctly classified by the proposed method.

Masahiro Oda, Holger R. Roth, Takayuki Kitasaka et al.

This paper presents a colonoscope tracking method utilizing a colon shape estimation method. CT colonography is used as a less-invasive colon diagnosis method. If colonic polyps or early-stage cancers are found, they are removed in a colonoscopic examination. In the colonoscopic examination, understanding where the colonoscope running in the colon is difficult. A colonoscope navigation system is necessary to reduce overlooking of polyps. We propose a colonoscope tracking method for navigation systems. Previous colonoscope tracking methods caused large tracking errors because they do not consider deformations of the colon during colonoscope insertions. We utilize the shape estimation network (SEN), which estimates deformed colon shape during colonoscope insertions. The SEN is a neural network containing long short-term memory (LSTM) layer. To perform colon shape estimation suitable to the real clinical situation, we trained the SEN using data obtained during colonoscope operations of physicians. The proposed tracking method performs mapping of the colonoscope tip position to a position in the colon using estimation results of the SEN. We evaluated the proposed method in a phantom study. We confirmed that tracking errors of the proposed method was enough small to perform navigation in the ascending, transverse, and descending colons.

Masahiro Oda, Holger R. Roth, Takayuki Kitasaka et al.

We propose an estimation method using a recurrent neural network (RNN) of the colon's shape where deformation was occurred by a colonoscope insertion. Colonoscope tracking or a navigation system that navigates physician to polyp positions is needed to reduce such complications as colon perforation. Previous tracking methods caused large tracking errors at the transverse and sigmoid colons because these areas largely deform during colonoscope insertion. Colon deformation should be taken into account in tracking processes. We propose a colon deformation estimation method using RNN and obtain the colonoscope shape from electromagnetic sensors during its insertion into the colon. This method obtains positional, directional, and an insertion length from the colonoscope shape. From its shape, we also calculate the relative features that represent the positional and directional relationships between two points on a colonoscope. Long short-term memory is used to estimate the current colon shape from the past transition of the features of the colonoscope shape. We performed colon shape estimation in a phantom study and correctly estimated the colon shapes during colonoscope insertion with 12.39 (mm) estimation error.

Tong ZHENG, Hirohisa ODA, Takayasu MORIYA et al.

This paper presents a super-resolution (SR) method with unpaired training dataset of clinical CT and micro CT volumes. For obtaining very detailed information such as cancer invasion from pre-operative clinical CT volumes of lung cancer patients, SR of clinical CT volumes to $\m$}CT level is desired. While most SR methods require paired low- and high- resolution images for training, it is infeasible to obtain paired clinical CT and μCT volumes. We propose a SR approach based on CycleGAN, which could perform SR on clinical CT into $μ$CT level. We proposed new loss functions to keep cycle consistency, while training without paired volumes. Experimental results demonstrated that our proposed method successfully performed SR of clinical CT volume of lung cancer patients into $μ$CT level.

Chenglong Wang, Masahiro Oda, Kensaku Mori

In this work, we present a memory-efficient fully convolutional network (FCN) incorporated with several memory-optimized techniques to reduce the run-time GPU memory demand during training phase. In medical image segmentation tasks, subvolume cropping has become a common preprocessing. Subvolumes (or small patch volumes) were cropped to reduce GPU memory demand. However, small patch volumes capture less spatial context that leads to lower accuracy. As a pilot study, the purpose of this work is to propose a memory-efficient FCN which enables us to train the model on full size CT image directly without subvolume cropping, while maintaining the segmentation accuracy. We optimize our network from both architecture and implementation. With the development of computing hardware, such as graphics processing unit (GPU) and tensor processing unit (TPU), now deep learning applications is able to train networks with large datasets within acceptable time. Among these applications, semantic segmentation using fully convolutional network (FCN) also has gained a significant improvement against traditional image processing approaches in both computer vision and medical image processing fields. However, unlike general color images used in computer vision tasks, medical images have larger scales than color images such as 3D computed tomography (CT) images, micro CT images, and histopathological images. For training these medical images, the large demand of computing resource become a severe problem. In this paper, we present a memory-efficient FCN to tackle the high GPU memory demand challenge in organ segmentation problem from clinical CT images. The experimental results demonstrated that our GPU memory demand is about 40% of baseline architecture, parameter amount is about 30% of the baseline.

Hirohisa Oda, Kohei Nishio, Takayuki Kitasaka et al.

This paper presents a visualization method of intestine (the small and large intestines) regions and their stenosed parts caused by ileus from CT volumes. Since it is difficult for non-expert clinicians to find stenosed parts, the intestine and its stenosed parts should be visualized intuitively. Furthermore, the intestine regions of ileus cases are quite hard to be segmented. The proposed method segments intestine regions by 3D FCN (3D U-Net). Intestine regions are quite difficult to be segmented in ileus cases since the inside the intestine is filled with fluids. These fluids have similar intensities with intestinal wall on 3D CT volumes. We segment the intestine regions by using 3D U-Net trained by a weak annotation approach. Weak-annotation makes possible to train the 3D U-Net with small manually-traced label images of the intestine. This avoids us to prepare many annotation labels of the intestine that has long and winding shape. Each intestine segment is volume-rendered and colored based on the distance from its endpoint in volume rendering. Stenosed parts (disjoint points of an intestine segment) can be easily identified on such visualization. In the experiments, we showed that stenosed parts were intuitively visualized as endpoints of segmented regions, which are colored by red or blue.

Tong Zheng, Hirohisa Oda, Takayasu Moriya et al.

This paper newly introduces multi-modality loss function for GAN-based super-resolution that can maintain image structure and intensity on unpaired training dataset of clinical CT and micro CT volumes. Precise non-invasive diagnosis of lung cancer mainly utilizes 3D multidetector computed-tomography (CT) data. On the other hand, we can take micro CT images of resected lung specimen in 50 micro meter or higher resolution. However, micro CT scanning cannot be applied to living human imaging. For obtaining highly detailed information such as cancer invasion area from pre-operative clinical CT volumes of lung cancer patients, super-resolution (SR) of clinical CT volumes to $μ$CT level might be one of substitutive solutions. While most SR methods require paired low- and high-resolution images for training, it is infeasible to obtain precisely paired clinical CT and micro CT volumes. We aim to propose unpaired SR approaches for clincial CT using micro CT images based on unpaired image translation methods such as CycleGAN or UNIT. Since clinical CT and micro CT are very different in structure and intensity, direct application of GAN-based unpaired image translation methods in super-resolution tends to generate arbitrary images. Aiming to solve this problem, we propose new loss function called multi-modality loss function to maintain the similarity of input images and corresponding output images in super-resolution task. Experimental results demonstrated that the newly proposed loss function made CycleGAN and UNIT to successfully perform SR of clinical CT images of lung cancer patients into micro CT level resolution, while original CycleGAN and UNIT failed in super-resolution.

Chenglong Wang, Holger R. Roth, Takayuki Kitasaka et al.

This paper presents a new approach for precisely estimating the renal vascular dominant region using a Voronoi diagram. To provide computer-assisted diagnostics for the pre-surgical simulation of partial nephrectomy surgery, we must obtain information on the renal arteries and the renal vascular dominant regions. We propose a fully automatic segmentation method that combines a neural network and tensor-based graph-cut methods to precisely extract the kidney and renal arteries. First, we use a convolutional neural network to localize the kidney regions and extract tiny renal arteries with a tensor-based graph-cut method. Then we generate a Voronoi diagram to estimate the renal vascular dominant regions based on the segmented kidney and renal arteries. The accuracy of kidney segmentation in 27 cases with 8-fold cross validation reached a Dice score of 95%. The accuracy of renal artery segmentation in 8 cases obtained a centerline overlap ratio of 80%. Each partition region corresponds to a renal vascular dominant region. The final dominant-region estimation accuracy achieved a Dice coefficient of 80%. A clinical application showed the potential of our proposed estimation approach in a real clinical surgical environment. Further validation using large-scale database is our future work.

Masahiro Oda, Natsuki Shimizu, Holger R. Roth et al.

This paper presents a fully automated atlas-based pancreas segmentation method from CT volumes utilizing 3D fully convolutional network (FCN) feature-based pancreas localization. Segmentation of the pancreas is difficult because it has larger inter-patient spatial variations than other organs. Previous pancreas segmentation methods failed to deal with such variations. We propose a fully automated pancreas segmentation method that contains novel localization and segmentation. Since the pancreas neighbors many other organs, its position and size are strongly related to the positions of the surrounding organs. We estimate the position and the size of the pancreas (localized) from global features by regression forests. As global features, we use intensity differences and 3D FCN deep learned features, which include automatically extracted essential features for segmentation. We chose 3D FCN features from a trained 3D U-Net, which is trained to perform multi-organ segmentation. The global features include both the pancreas and surrounding organ information. After localization, a patient-specific probabilistic atlas-based pancreas segmentation is performed. In evaluation results with 146 CT volumes, we achieved 60.6% of the Jaccard index and 73.9% of the Dice overlap.

Masahiro Oda, Takayuki Kitasaka, Kazuhiro Furukawa et al.

This paper presents a colon deformation estimation method, which can be used to estimate colon deformations during colonoscope insertions. Colonoscope tracking or navigation system that navigates a physician to polyp positions during a colonoscope insertion is required to reduce complications such as colon perforation. A previous colonoscope tracking method obtains a colonoscope position in the colon by registering a colonoscope shape and a colon shape. The colonoscope shape is obtained using an electromagnetic sensor, and the colon shape is obtained from a CT volume. However, large tracking errors were observed due to colon deformations occurred during colonoscope insertions. Such deformations make the registration difficult. Because the colon deformation is caused by a colonoscope, there is a strong relationship between the colon deformation and the colonoscope shape. An estimation method of colon deformations occur during colonoscope insertions is necessary to reduce tracking errors. We propose a colon deformation estimation method. This method is used to estimate a deformed colon shape from a colonoscope shape. We use the regression forests algorithm to estimate a deformed colon shape. The regression forests algorithm is trained using pairs of colon and colonoscope shapes, which contains deformations occur during colonoscope insertions. As a preliminary study, we utilized the method to estimate deformations of a colon phantom. In our experiments, the proposed method correctly estimated deformed colon phantom shapes.

Holger R. Roth, Chen Shen, Hirohisa Oda et al.

Recent advances in deep learning, like 3D fully convolutional networks (FCNs), have improved the state-of-the-art in dense semantic segmentation of medical images. However, most network architectures require severely downsampling or cropping the images to meet the memory limitations of today's GPU cards while still considering enough context in the images for accurate segmentation. In this work, we propose a novel approach that utilizes auto-context to perform semantic segmentation at higher resolutions in a multi-scale pyramid of stacked 3D FCNs. We train and validate our models on a dataset of manually annotated abdominal organs and vessels from 377 clinical CT images used in gastric surgery, and achieve promising results with close to 90% Dice score on average. For additional evaluation, we perform separate testing on datasets from different sources and achieve competitive results, illustrating the robustness of the model and approach.

Takayasu Moriya, Holger R. Roth, Shota Nakamura et al.

This paper presents a novel unsupervised segmentation method for 3D medical images. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have brought significant advances in image segmentation. However, most of the recent methods rely on supervised learning, which requires large amounts of manually annotated data. Thus, it is challenging for these methods to cope with the growing amount of medical images. This paper proposes a unified approach to unsupervised deep representation learning and clustering for segmentation. Our proposed method consists of two phases. In the first phase, we learn deep feature representations of training patches from a target image using joint unsupervised learning (JULE) that alternately clusters representations generated by a CNN and updates the CNN parameters using cluster labels as supervisory signals. We extend JULE to 3D medical images by utilizing 3D convolutions throughout the CNN architecture. In the second phase, we apply k-means to the deep representations from the trained CNN and then project cluster labels to the target image in order to obtain the fully segmented image. We evaluated our methods on three images of lung cancer specimens scanned with micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). The automatic segmentation of pathological regions in micro-CT could further contribute to the pathological examination process. Hence, we aim to automatically divide each image into the regions of invasive carcinoma, noninvasive carcinoma, and normal tissue. Our experiments show the potential abilities of unsupervised deep representation learning for medical image segmentation.

Takayasu Moriya, Holger R. Roth, Shota Nakamura et al.

This paper presents a novel method for unsupervised segmentation of pathology images. Staging of lung cancer is a major factor of prognosis. Measuring the maximum dimensions of the invasive component in a pathology images is an essential task. Therefore, image segmentation methods for visualizing the extent of invasive and noninvasive components on pathology images could support pathological examination. However, it is challenging for most of the recent segmentation methods that rely on supervised learning to cope with unlabeled pathology images. In this paper, we propose a unified approach to unsupervised representation learning and clustering for pathology image segmentation. Our method consists of two phases. In the first phase, we learn feature representations of training patches from a target image using the spherical k-means. The purpose of this phase is to obtain cluster centroids which could be used as filters for feature extraction. In the second phase, we apply conventional k-means to the representations extracted by the centroids and then project cluster labels to the target images. We evaluated our methods on pathology images of lung cancer specimen. Our experiments showed that the proposed method outperforms traditional k-means segmentation and the multithreshold Otsu method both quantitatively and qualitatively with an improved normalized mutual information (NMI) score of 0.626 compared to 0.168 and 0.167, respectively. Furthermore, we found that the centroids can be applied to the segmentation of other slices from the same sample.

Holger R. Roth, Chen Shen, Hirohisa Oda et al.

One of the most common tasks in medical imaging is semantic segmentation. Achieving this segmentation automatically has been an active area of research, but the task has been proven very challenging due to the large variation of anatomy across different patients. However, recent advances in deep learning have made it possible to significantly improve the performance of image recognition and semantic segmentation methods in the field of computer vision. Due to the data driven approaches of hierarchical feature learning in deep learning frameworks, these advances can be translated to medical images without much difficulty. Several variations of deep convolutional neural networks have been successfully applied to medical images. Especially fully convolutional architectures have been proven efficient for segmentation of 3D medical images. In this article, we describe how to build a 3D fully convolutional network (FCN) that can process 3D images in order to produce automatic semantic segmentations. The model is trained and evaluated on a clinical computed tomography (CT) dataset and shows state-of-the-art performance in multi-organ segmentation.

Chen Shen, Holger R. Roth, Hirohisa Oda et al.

Deep learning-based methods achieved impressive results for the segmentation of medical images. With the development of 3D fully convolutional networks (FCNs), it has become feasible to produce improved results for multi-organ segmentation of 3D computed tomography (CT) images. The results of multi-organ segmentation using deep learning-based methods not only depend on the choice of networks architecture, but also strongly rely on the choice of loss function. In this paper, we present a discussion on the influence of Dice-based loss functions for multi-class organ segmentation using a dataset of abdominal CT volumes. We investigated three different types of weighting the Dice loss functions based on class label frequencies (uniform, simple and square) and evaluate their influence on segmentation accuracies. Furthermore, we compared the influence of different initial learning rates. We achieved average Dice scores of 81.3%, 59.5% and 31.7% for uniform, simple and square types of weighting when the learning rate is 0.001, and 78.2%, 81.0% and 58.5% for each weighting when the learning rate is 0.01. Our experiments indicated a strong relationship between class balancing weights and initial learning rate in training.

Holger Roth, Masahiro Oda, Natsuki Shimizu et al.

Pancreas segmentation in computed tomography imaging has been historically difficult for automated methods because of the large shape and size variations between patients. In this work, we describe a custom-build 3D fully convolutional network (FCN) that can process a 3D image including the whole pancreas and produce an automatic segmentation. We investigate two variations of the 3D FCN architecture; one with concatenation and one with summation skip connections to the decoder part of the network. We evaluate our methods on a dataset from a clinical trial with gastric cancer patients, including 147 contrast enhanced abdominal CT scans acquired in the portal venous phase. Using the summation architecture, we achieve an average Dice score of 89.7 $\pm$ 3.8 (range [79.8, 94.8]) % in testing, achieving the new state-of-the-art performance in pancreas segmentation on this dataset.

Qier Meng, Takayuki Kitasaka, Masahiro Oda et al.

Some lung diseases are related to bronchial airway structures and morphology. Although airway segmentation from chest CT volumes is an important task in the computer-aided diagnosis and surgery assistance systems for the chest, complete 3-D airway structure segmentation is a quite challenging task due to its complex tree-like structure. In this paper, we propose a new airway segmentation method from 3D chest CT volumes based on volume of interests (VOI) using gradient vector flow (GVF). This method segments the bronchial regions by applying the cavity enhancement filter (CEF) to trace the bronchial tree structure from the trachea. It uses the CEF in the VOI to segment each branch. And a tube-likeness function based on GVF and the GVF magnitude map in each VOI are utilized to assist predicting the positions and directions of child branches. By calculating the tube-likeness function based on GVF and the GVF magnitude map, the airway-like candidate structures are identified and their centrelines are extracted. Based on the extracted centrelines, we can detect the branch points of the bifurcations and directions of the airway branches in the next level. At the same time, a leakage detection is performed to avoid the leakage by analysing the pixel information and the shape information of airway candidate regions extracted in the VOI. Finally, we unify all of the extracted bronchial regions to form an integrated airway tree. Preliminary experiments using four cases of chest CT volumes demonstrated that the proposed method can extract more bronchial branches in comparison with other methods.

Holger R. Roth, Hirohisa Oda, Yuichiro Hayashi et al.

Recent advances in 3D fully convolutional networks (FCN) have made it feasible to produce dense voxel-wise predictions of full volumetric images. In this work, we show that a multi-class 3D FCN trained on manually labeled CT scans of seven abdominal structures (artery, vein, liver, spleen, stomach, gallbladder, and pancreas) can achieve competitive segmentation results, while avoiding the need for handcrafting features or training organ-specific models. To this end, we propose a two-stage, coarse-to-fine approach that trains an FCN model to roughly delineate the organs of interest in the first stage (seeing $\sim$40% of the voxels within a simple, automatically generated binary mask of the patient's body). We then use these predictions of the first-stage FCN to define a candidate region that will be used to train a second FCN. This step reduces the number of voxels the FCN has to classify to $\sim$10% while maintaining a recall high of $>$99%. This second-stage FCN can now focus on more detailed segmentation of the organs. We respectively utilize training and validation sets consisting of 281 and 50 clinical CT images. Our hierarchical approach provides an improved Dice score of 7.5 percentage points per organ on average in our validation set. We furthermore test our models on a completely unseen data collection acquired at a different hospital that includes 150 CT scans with three anatomical labels (liver, spleen, and pancreas). In such challenging organs as the pancreas, our hierarchical approach improves the mean Dice score from 68.5 to 82.2%, achieving the highest reported average score on this dataset.

Mohammad Eshghi, Holger R. Roth, Masahiro Oda et al.

This paper presents an end-to-end pixelwise fully automated segmentation of the head sectioned images of the Visible Korean Human (VKH) project based on Deep Convolutional Neural Networks (DCNNs). By converting classification networks into Fully Convolutional Networks (FCNs), a coarse prediction map, with smaller size than the original input image, can be created for segmentation purposes. To refine this map and to obtain a dense pixel-wise output, standard FCNs use deconvolution layers to upsample the coarse map. However, upsampling based on deconvolution increases the number of network parameters and causes loss of detail because of interpolation. On the other hand, dilated convolution is a new technique introduced recently that attempts to capture multi-scale contextual information without increasing the network parameters while keeping the resolution of the prediction maps high. We used both a standard FCN and a dilated convolution based FCN for semantic segmentation of the head sectioned images of the VKH dataset. Quantitative results showed approximately 20% improvement in the segmentation accuracy when using FCNs with dilated convolutions.

Holger R. Roth, Kai Nagara, Hirohisa Oda et al.

Computational anatomy allows the quantitative analysis of organs in medical images. However, most analysis is constrained to the millimeter scale because of the limited resolution of clinical computed tomography (CT). X-ray microtomography ($μ$CT) on the other hand allows imaging of ex-vivo tissues at a resolution of tens of microns. In this work, we use clinical CT to image lung cancer patients before partial pneumonectomy (resection of pathological lung tissue). The resected specimen is prepared for $μ$CT imaging at a voxel resolution of 50 $μ$m (0.05 mm). This high-resolution image of the lung cancer tissue allows further insides into understanding of tumor growth and categorization. For making full use of this additional information, image fusion (registration) needs to be performed in order to re-align the $μ$CT image with clinical CT. We developed a multi-scale non-rigid registration approach. After manual initialization using a few landmark points and rigid alignment, several levels of non-rigid registration between down-sampled (in the case of $μ$CT) and up-sampled (in the case of clinical CT) representations of the image are performed. Any non-lung tissue is ignored during the computation of the similarity measure used to guide the registration during optimization. We are able to recover the volume differences introduced by the resection and preparation of the lung specimen. The average ($\pm$ std. dev.) minimum surface distance between $μ$CT and clinical CT at the resected lung surface is reduced from 3.3 $\pm$ 2.9 (range: [0.1, 15.9]) to 2.3 mm $\pm$ 2.8 (range: [0.0, 15.3]) mm. The alignment of clinical CT with $μ$CT will allow further registration with even finer resolutions of $μ$CT (up to 10 $μ$m resolution) and ultimately with histopathological microscopy images for further macro to micro image fusion that can aid medical image analysis.